Polysar Limited Essay

Executive Summary This report seeks to explain the key differences between the NASA (North American South American) and EROW (Europe and rest of world) sales performance over the past nine months. There are several reasons causing the sales performance figures currently stemming from NASA to be incomparable with the EROW numbers, including the current practice of transferring large quantities of regular butyl rubber from the Sarnia to the Antwerp production facilities. As Polysar operates globally, it is also important to consider certain international aspects and specific risks. These include, foreign currency exchange fluctuations, potentially creating gains or losses, as well as international taxes and tariffs. The decisions made regarding allocation of profits between the two geographic centers will directly impact the taxes paid in either location. ADD ON WITH SPECIFICS Introduction A high-level overview of Polysar Limited provides an all-encompassing image of the nature of this case, necessary to later effectively focus in on specific financial details and problems. Polysar is Canada’s largest chemical company, with the North American production facility located in Sarnia Ontario. The company splits into 3 main groups including petrochemicals, diversified products, and rubber, of which the latter is the largest representing 46% of sales. This rubber division is the core of the report, as its success is vital to Polysar. The rubber division is split into two geographic centers, in Sarnia Ontario and Antwerp Belgium respectively. (See Appendix 1 for graphical representation). Both geographic centers produce both regular butyl and halobutyl rubbers. In 1985, Sarnia opened a second production facility that has not yet reached capacity. By comparison, Antwerp has only one facility operating at full capacity and still unable to meet demand for regular butyl rubber. To cope with this, the Sarnia transfers large quantities of its production to Antwerp at cost. The inability of the Sarnia facility to earn a profit from these transferred units represents one of the main causes of concern regarding sales performance figures. In order to correctly and efficiently asses the current situation, we will be reviewing a number of criteria, and from there introduce and analyze several alternatives presented by these assessments. Further Recommendations Transfer Pricing As you are aware, the NASA segment is currently charging EROW for the butyl rubber being transferred in order to meet the European demand. This charge is currently calculated on the basis of NASA’s cost. This is only one of three possible approaches that are used to set to transfer prices internally within Polysar Limited. The three options that may be considered are: 1. Set transfer prices at cost 2. Set transfer prices at a negotiated mutually agreed upon level 3. Set transfer prices at the market value  Currently, as the first option is implemented, this is causing the two major problems. The first is in regards to the product mix produced within the Sarnia production facilities. As no profit is recorded for the units that are transferred, the product mix may be decided on a sub-optimal basis. Our team recommends further investigation to determine the necessary information as to if the costs to produce the halobutyl and butyl rubbers within both NASA and EROW. This could lead to decisions of specialization in the Sarnia plants or Antwerp plant for one type of rubber produced if cost savings for that product line is higher than transportation costs of shipping to the other facility. Additionally, another problem being experienced through the current transfer pricing approach is that the NASA does not show any profit on the Polysar internal transfer of rubber. Consequently, the EROW segment may record this profit without the same having the additional fixed costs pertaining to the costly initial investment of the second Sarnia plant amounting $550 million and the associated depreciation. This leads to an unfair representation of profitability for the two cost centers. In terms of which to use for Polysar Limited’s Rubber Segment, setting prices at cost hereby benefits the EROW center, whereas using market price would benefit the NASA segment. This is because then NASA is recording revenue for the units transferred, whereas EROW will not, (provided that the prices in both markets are similar – international arbitrage). With Polysar’s company wide profitability in mind, as well as spirit of fairness in representation for both segments using a de-centralized approach, our recommendation is the use of negotiated transfer pricing. This occurs when the NASA and EROW segments collaborate to agree on a selling/purchasing price for the internationally transferred butyl supply. Implementing this will cause both segments to have better information of the costs and benefits associated with the transfer. To narrow down on what this transfer price should specifically be, a range of acceptable transfer prices will provide an estimate.  As this is an international transfer, there are even more considerations that become relevant. For example, the corporate tax rate applied in North American versus Europe should be considered. Furthermore, management should look specifically into duties, tariffs, foreign exchange rates and risks, as well as governmental relationships. By this token, charging Antwerp a lower transfer price will result in fewer Custom Duty payments as the rubber crosses borders. Flexible Versus Static Budgetary Systems Currently Polysar employs a static budget system for their budgeted level of rubber sales. However, if more butyl or halobutyl rubber is produced and then sold these will cause a variance as composed to budgeted figures. For  example, variable costs will go up, however this may simply be in direct correlation to the increased rubber produced. It is important to be able to analyze if variances are based on volume or cost differences. By tracing the cost variances more closely after implementing this flexible budget system, a better evaluation of management’s performance may be achieved. This can be directly used when considering compensation for managers. INSERT NUMBERS. Employee Compensation Plan Polysar uses the participative budgetary system, which is directly linked to employee compensation. Although this bottom-up approach to budgeting allows for accurate estimates due to managers with specific rubber cost knowledge being involved, it can cause a conflict of interest that may be costly. It is essential, and highly recommended that the NASA rubber division establish a budgetary committee to review the estimates made to ensure the lower level management has not added in budgetary slack intentionally in an effort to achieve their compensation figures based on meeting these targets. However, even the top management currently possesses a huge conflict of interest influencing them in the direction of allowing for budgetary slack as their compensation is up to 50% for both meeting divisional profits, as well as exceeding corporate profit targets. These targets can clearly be met, if costs have been artificially manipulated to be higher than expected. As it is improbable to find members of the budgetary committee who will be completed impartial and not subject to a bonus on the premise of meeting profit targets, responsible accounting should be implemented. This system holds each manager responsible for the estimate of the individual cost and revenue basis for which he or she was in charge of deciding. This means, he or she is essentially responsible to explain the differences between the actual and budgeted results. In order to negate the previously mentioned conflict of interest, it is recommended to include the amount of variance in a manager’s estimate in the calculate of compensation, hereby eliminated large bonuses if the original estimate was not within a certain range of the actual value (extra-ordinary occurrences excluded). Hedging of Risk The nature of the Polysar’s business contains a certain degree of  specialized risk. First and foremost, operating internationally in various currency zones contributes to foreign exchange risk. This can be hedged through capital markets, resulting in lowering risk for the corporation. Also, as there is a great degree of risk for the variable costs of production in relation to the oil, it is imperative to hedge this risk as well. It is very possible to hedge market commodity price risks through capital markets or advance purchase of these oil inputs. This can provide more stability for Polysar Limited as a whole, particularly the key rubber division. Capacity Analysis Appendices Appendix 1 Polysar Rubber

Intel’s Capital Budgeting Decision in 2013 Essay

An arguable capital budgeting decision in Intel’s Financial Plan 2013 Thursday 17 January 2013, Thomson Reuters, the world’s largest international multimedia news agency, has highlighted some concerns about Intel’s Financial Plan 2013. Noel Randewich, the report’s writer, thought Intel Corporation’s current-quarter revenue forecast disappointed Wall Street analysts. The reason behind is Intel will spend more $2 billion of its increased spending on expanding researching facility. This action is a controversial one because it has feedbacks from different sides. Essentially, one major worry is probably that the predicted personal computer market size is going to be smaller in 2013 while Intel lays a bet on very huge investment. However, Chief Executive Paul Otellini said that modern long-term assets could help Intel maintain the lowest cost as possible. On the other hand, some other Wall street analysts advocate Intel’s decision due to fact that it would be a plus for company ‘s operating efficiency. Intel was founded in 1968 with a vision for semiconductor memory products. It is best known for producing the microprocessors found in many personal computers. The company also makes a range of other hardware including network cards, motherboards, and graphics chips. Yet Intel became reputed after Wintel alliance with Microsoft Corporation, which enabled Intel to possess 80% of personal computer chip market. Back to the new event in the 2013 first quarter, the $2 billion investment on long-term assets belongs to capital budgeting decision type. Undoubtedly, it is very important decision because Intel has to face a great number of effects. The first clear limitation could be that Intel would run the operation under its capacity due to unused space of new plant as well as to the reduced market size. At the same time, another stumbling block might be that its higher fixed cost than previous years unquestionably harms the company’s bottom line. Intel estimated first-quarter revenue of $12.7 billion, plus or minus $500 million whereas analysts expected $12.91 billion for the current quarter. Wall Street analysts assumed that Intel has been making a risk bet for 2013 and Intel should not expand its business while the PC chip market is not growing much. It is very reasonable for those analysts to think like that because Intel now has a absolutely strong competition with other competitors for the new market segment of mobile phone chip making. It has recently entered this market territory in 2012 and its market share for smart phones is less than 1 percent, trailing Qualcomm, Samsung Electronics, ARM and others. Therefore the whole market size for Intel is not really large when compared to some previous years. However, Intel’s investment decision definitely holds positive aspects for the reason that the long-term implications of said decision is to keep the cost lowest on a per unit basis owing to the leading edge capacity. Besides this, a second plus point could be Intel has prepared a plan to raise the market share in the whole industry with a new facility of researching future manufacturing technology. It seems to be a sign of innovations, new products, new market share and of course higher returns in 2013. In conclusion, this Intel’s capital budgeting decision is surely a bet but times and the company’s efforts itself will answer us how it can uphold the leading position in chip making industry in 2013 and following years. Works Cited Noel Randewich, Liana B. Baker. â€Å"Intel CEO to retire as chipmaker struggles with mobile.† Reuters.com, 19 Nov 2012. Web. 18 Jan 2013. Noel Randewich. â€Å" Intel weak outlook, spending hikes unnerve Wall Street.† Reuters.com, 17 Jan 2013. Web. 18 Jan 2013. Patrick Darling. â€Å"Intel Reports Full-Year Revenue of $53.3 Billion, Net Income of $11.0 Billion.† Newsroom.intel.com, 17 Jan 2013. Web. 18 Jan 2013. Discussion Questions 1. Are there any different pros and cons for Intel’s capital budgeting decision apart from ones said in the analysis? 2. With this new investment, give the probability that Intel can raise its share more 1% in smart phones chip making market. 3. How can Intel stabilize the profit margin after a huge investment in 2013 first quarter?

Ethnography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Ethnography - Essay Example Therefore, the degree to which there is a possibility of a researcher becoming a full participant within an experience is dependent partially on the features of the setting under observation. However, a number of ethnographers do not trust that understanding necessitates that they have to be full members of the group under study. In fact, the majority of them have the perception that this must not happen in instances where there is a need of producing a valid, as well as the useful report (Brewer 2000, p.119). These researchers suppose that the ethnographer must attempt being both outsider and insider, thereby remaining on the group's margins socially, as well as intellectually since there is a need for the view of both an outsider while also as an insider. Therefore, there is an emphasis that, apart from seeking to understand, the ethnographer should make an attempt at seeing familiar surrounding as anthropologically strange, the same way someone from another society would see it, t hereby adopting the Martian perspective.The initial yet most significant distinction amongst observational strategies is about the degree to which the observer happens to be a participant in the program activities under study. This is not an easy choice between participation, as well as nonparticipation. The degree of participation happens to be a continuum that varies from complete concentration in the program as a full participant to total separation from the activities under observation thereby assuming a role of a spectator.... of influential policymakers who are at the top, while generating latest analytic insights through the engagement of interactive, team study of often subtle grounds of human difference, along with similarity. Such findings give ethnographers the capability of informing other people of their findings while attempting to derive, for instance, policy decisions or instructional improvements from such a study (Brewer 2000, p.110). Variations within Observational Methods Observational research happens not to be a single thing; rather, the decision of employing field methods when gathering informational data happens to be the initial step within a decision process, which entails a vast number of options, as well as possibilities. When making a choice of employing field methods, this includes a commitment of getting close to the subject under observation with its natural setting, being factual and descriptive when reporting what gets observed, while, at the same time, finding out the viewpoin ts of participants within the domain observed. Once the researcher makes these basic commitments, it is essential to make more decisions concerning which specific observational approaches are suitable for the research setting at hand (Brewer 2000, p.114). Variation within Observer Involvement The initial yet most significant distinction amongst observational strategies is about the degree to which the observer happens to be a participant within the program activities under study. This is not an easy choice between participation, as well as nonparticipation. The degree of participation happens to be a continuum that varies from complete concentration in the program as a full participant to total separation from the activities under observation thereby assuming a role of a spectator. As a

A moment in my life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A moment in my life - Essay Example We typically go on trips every weekend, with either her friends or mine. One day in 2006, my friend asked me for a favor. I have a penchant for fixing cars and anything mechanical, and so when my friend approached me to fix his car, I was more than willing to do it for him. He went to the house with the car, and said, â€Å"Buddy, I do not have the time and the funds to have this thing fixed. But if you promise to do it for me, we’d have a joy ride during the weekend.† Being best friends for the past 10 years, I willingly obliged. It took me several hours of painstaking diagnosis and greasy work to have the thing fixed. â€Å"Vrrrrrrrrrrooooom!†, it finally went. Alas, the car was good as new. Excited with what I had accomplished, I ran to the phone to call Carl and tell him that the machine was ready for pick up. â€Å"Don’t forget the job ride!†, I muttered. Shouting, he replied, â€Å"It’s a date, and don’t forget to bring along your sister.† Karl and my sister were best friends as well, and there were countless times when we were each others’ confidantes. My sister willingly tagged along on that bright, Saturday. The weather was pleasant, and we all drove without even knowing where we were destined to go. The usual chit-chat made us forget about the time, and we were exhausted after three hours of laughter. Without much warning, the unexpected happened. A ten-wheeler truck was speeding at the other lane, and Carl tried his best to avoid it when the car’s breaks did not function as expected. In a few seconds, the car turned turtle, and I saw both Carl and my sister unconscious. There was blood all over the place. My sister had enough strength to tell me, â€Å"Take care. Go get some help†¦save yourself.† I was in total panic and I could not feel anything. â€Å"They’re here. There’s a conscious guy here!†. The paramedics came, and brought in all of us into the ambulance onto the nearest hospital. I was a

Reflection of tuesdays with Morrie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reflection of tuesdays with Morrie - Essay Example As a result, they do not have much idea about learning how to die, but so much knowledge about the learning on how to live. According to Morrie, â€Å"once you learn how to die, you learn how to live†. To analyze the context of this point, one must understand first that these words form a statement that came from a person who has eventually accepted the idea of death, it is Morrie. Morrie, in his situation is not oblivious of the thought that the possibility of his physical death is at any moment and that could be depicted as like someone who is lurking around the corner and is ready to gouge him to death at any time. It is at this point in time that Morrie has eventually appreciated many things about life, which is something that many people do not appreciate, because they are too busy or being preoccupied earning a living for them to survive. However, behind all of these things, they are oblivious of the fact that they might have been missing something important or essential. They might have not appreciated the simple things, which eventually are the things based on the point of view of Morrie a s essential to survival. These things if properly appreciated will eventually lead a person to live a life free from stress and full of contentment. Thus, Morrie is just trying to show the idea that unless a person will never know things concerning on what it takes to be dying, the things that are truly essential for living can hardly be recognized by them. This is evident to the point of Morrie when he is certain of the perspective that people are too involved in material goods and their own egotism (Albom, 2009). While relying on an oxygen tank to survive, Morrie eventually appreciates the things outside of his window, but unfortunately he is no longer able to go outside and enjoy some of these things. However, the thought of contentment in his mind is the ultimate force that continues to

Team Work Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Team Work - Research Paper Example Individuals often come together to formulate groups of different types and sizes. However, these groups are not necessarily considered a team. A team includes a group of individuals working with each other in order to fulfill a common objective or goal (Carter, Bishop, and Kravits, 2012). In the current context, most activities are accomplished by teams. Large companies often formulate project teams, assigning these to different parts of the world. Smaller organizations also use teams in order to guarantee that their products as well as services are doing well competitively. Professors in universities develop curriculums as teams, working with not just other professors, but with counselors and administrators as well. The main advantage to teamwork is the fact that the skills, knowledge, resources, and abilities of various individuals can be combined in order to accomplish a task (Carter, et.al., 2012). Tasks often require the expertise or knowledge of various individuals in order to produce effective and quality results, teams can secure such quality. Collaboration is the primary element of teamwork. Even where project teams are not big enough, collaboration is still important. Collaboration is about working effectively alongside other individuals in order to secure common goals. It requires different variables, including trust, honesty, respect, and openness (Xiao, Parker, and Manser, 2013). This would mean that the members of the team are honest with each other, telling the truth even if such truths would not be favorable to the team. The members of the team would work with a high level of comfort with each other, allowing members to participate in the problem-solving activities and in managing obstacles (Xiao, et.al., 2013). Openness would also indicate that members of the team would be able to easily say what they want to say to the other

Examining the Sustainable Procurement Practices in the Public Sector - Assignment

Examining the Sustainable Procurement Practices in the Public Sector - A Case of ARAMCO (Saudi Arabia) - Assignment Example The given data is relevant to the study. Through an extensive literature, the choice criteria ensured only data relevant to the study was used. The data is also representative of the field of study. It has dissected the procurement practices of ARAMCO and examined the factors responsible for the success and failure of sustainable procurement in a very analytical and exhaustive form. Sense has been created through comparison of several studies and internal consistency has been maintained. Following the large array of databases I had to chose from, I will agree that the data is accurate and my arguments are also profound based on the large array of literature used. The data is accurate considering the fact that this is a secondary research and many of the sources reviewed are peer reviewed. The information given is very systematic and shows the chronology of events. It is divided into two sections, with section one discussing the sustainability of procurement by ARAMCO. The second part being addressed is the alternative source of energy which include solar and wind energy. The intension are full filled through exhaustive examination and dissection of the topic. The beginning of the study is captivating where a clear background is given using a study that was done by other researchers. The end of the study is conclusive where solution and recommendations are made to the problems. In carrying out the research, an extensive research was carried out and the collected data was analyzed in order to come up with new and conclusive ideas based on the research question and synthesis of the identified data. The paper is fluent with no errors in grammar nor style hence enhancing the reader’s understanding. The report also flows in a chronological way from the beginning to the end with a clear guidance on the process and the end

Why White Collar Crimes are Committed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why White Collar Crimes are Committed - Essay Example By implementing the theory of Individualism in criminology, certain factors that lead to the causation of this form of white collar crime become evident. According to Sutherland (1994), personality and individual characteristics are not sufficient to offer a full comprehensive example of white collar crime. However, these two characteristics should not be dismissed entirely nor should the theory of the individualistic level (Friedrich 2004). The reason this is stated is due to the implied idea that top corporate professionals, within these aforementioned companies are interpreted to the general public as being greedy and self preserving. This is obvious by the fact that if ethic's and concern for other investors had been deciding factors, these criminal actions of fraud and embezzlement (among others) would have never taken place. Many times the individualistic theory in white collar crime points to greed as the main causation for the crime or crimes. What it amounts to is the fact that these executives would rather take the wrong highway to achieve higher positions of importance and financial flare/success than worry about what repercussions for their actions might be later down the road (Friedrich 2004).

Business Plan for AAA International Travel Services Ltd Essay

Business Plan for AAA International Travel Services Ltd - Essay Example The products and services that the business is going to launch differ from that of their competitors. All other travel firms offer different services to customers based on available budget and resources. AAA travel services will provide services based on customers’ preferences. Although all packages have been designed already in accordance with the schedules and available resources, but the firm can bring little changes in the packages in accordance with the needs and demands of the customers. For example, if a customer asks for a ten days trip to some Eastern country and the firm offers an eight days package, then the company will change the schedule and package accordingly but the customer will have to pay some extra amount to the firm because of modifications. The firm will also provide best available accommodation to its customers. â€Å"Comfortable hotels and accommodation facilities play a very important role in popularizing any tourist destination† (Ahliya 2008, p. 1).ii. Target MarketTarget market is the group of people that a company wants to target for the sale of products and services. For AAA Travel Services company, the target market for the firm will cover a large number of local and international customers. The company is located in an area where travel companies are also operating there business activities, so there is also a tough competition in place. Many external and internal factors can affect product innovations, business process innovations or their combination.... The international department will play the lead role. It will include branch office, ticketing services, business office, and direct sales stores. Following is the business structure of the firm: b) The Product Following are the products and services that the firm will provide to its customers: i. Gaps in Market The products and services that the business is going to launch differ from that of their competitors. All other travel firms offer different services to customers based on available budget and resources. AAA travel services will provide services based on customers’ preferences. Although all packages have been designed already in accordance with the schedules and available resources, but the firm can bring little changes in the packages in accordance with the needs and demands of the customers. For example, if a customer asks for a ten days trip to some Eastern country and the firm offers an eight days package, then the company will change the schedule and package accor dingly but the customer will have to pay some extra amount to the firm because of modifications. The firm will also provide best available accommodation to its customers. â€Å"Comfortable hotels and accommodation facilities play a very important role in popularizing any tourist destination† (Ahliya 2008, p. 1). ii. Target Market Target market is the group of people that a company wants to target for the sale of products and services (Tatum n.d.). For AAA Travel Services company, the target market for the firm will cover a large number of local and international customers. The company is located in an area where travel companies are also operating there business activities, so there is also a tough competition in place. However, the range of the

Edward taylor and Metaphor Essay Example for Free

Edward taylor and Metaphor Essay The Beauty of Metaphor A Metaphor is defined as a grammatical device that â€Å"compares two different ideas by speaking of one in terms of the other. It asserts that one thing is another thing.† One of the best poets at using the metaphor is Edward Taylor, an intellectual New English Puritan. In his â€Å"Meditation One,† Taylor compares â€Å"God’s Matchless Love† to water, saying that it fills â€Å"Heaven to the Brim!† Then, in his â€Å"The Reflection,† Taylor says â€Å"Earth† was once a â€Å"Paradise of Heaven. † In both instances, Edward Taylor calls one thing something to help emphasize the message he is trying to portray, but ultimately, his metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† is more effective as it reflects a greater idea. Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† and â€Å"The Reflection† shows how he used metaphors to compare an important topic in his poem to something more relatable, but his metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† is more effective as it portrays a greater message. Edward Taylor’s use of Metaphor in â€Å"Meditation One† helps portray his message of Gods never ending love for us. In Line 7, Edward Taylor starts the sentence of by saying â€Å"Oh, Matchless Love!filling Heaven to the Brim!† Taylor compares the incomparable love of God to water, as he says it will fill heaven â€Å"to the brim.† By using the verb â€Å"filling,† the reader automatically thinks of something more relatable to his knowledge, water in context to a drink. When one pours water in, the water fills the cup. Ultimately, through his diction choice and use of metaphor, Taylor considers God’s love to be something that fills humanities’ needs. Since it can fill â€Å"Heaven,† it can fill our souls with a never ending joy. This is why Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor is so effective, it ulaitmely leads to a bigger, more important conclusion that can be easily derived through his relatable examples. This metaphor, in comparison to the one in â€Å"The Reflection†, is more effective as it plays a vital role in the establishment of a major theme in the poem. Edward Taylor’s use of metaphor in â€Å"The Reflection† helps portray his message that Earth was once a heavenly place until it was corrupted with sin. In Line 19, Edward Taylor starts the sentence off by saying â€Å"Earth once  was Paradise of Heaven Below.† 1Divine life, living and dead, whatever the case may be, existed on Earth at one period of time, until the corruptness of sin took over the Godly world. In this metaphor, Edward Taylor says that Earth once â€Å"was† a Paradise of Heaven Below, or, in other words, that Earth was once a Heavenly place. In this case, Taylor’s metaphor is much more simple, he calls one thing something else. The metaphor’s main puropose in this case is to call earth, in a past time, a Godly place, until the sinful nature of Adam and Eve led to the abolishment of Earth’s divineness Due to its simplistic nature, and the message that it emphasizes, this metaphor is not as effective as the previous me taphor. In conclusion, Edward Taylor uses metaphor to perfection.2 To think brillianty and to write brilliantly are two completely different things, and Edward Taylor does both. In both cases, Edward Taylor uses metaphor to call one thing something else. In â€Å"Meditation One,† He calls God’s love water, and in â€Å"The Reflection,† calls Earth a once Divine place. Ultimately, in â€Å"Meditation One,† his use of Metaphor is more effective because it conveys a more important message of God’s undeniable love for us.

John Rawls Theory Of Justice Philosophy Essay

John Rawls Theory Of Justice Philosophy Essay A Theory of Justice is Rawlss attempt to formulate a philosophy of justice and a theoretical program for establishing political structures designed to preserve social justice and individual liberty. Rawls writes in reaction to the then predominant theory of utilitarianism, which posits that justice is defined by that which provides the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Rawls proposes a theoretical person who, shrouded in a veil of ignorance, must design a just society without foreknowledge of his or her own status in that society. Rawls asserts that from this objective vantage point, which he calls the original position, the individual will choose a system of justice that adequately provides for those positioned on the lowest rungs of society. The individual will do so because he or she may end up in such a disadvantaged position and will want to be adequately provided for. Rawls draws from earlier theories of political philosophy that posit a social contract by which individuals implicitly agree to the terms on which they are governed in any society. Rawls concludes that such a social contract, formulated from the perspective of the original position, will guarantee a just society without sacrificing the happiness or liberty of any one individual. Rawls addresses issues of liberty, social equality, democracy, and the conflict of interests between the individual and society. A Theory of Justice Summary: Justice as Fairness In A Theory of Justice, Rawls begins with the statement that, Justice is the first virtue of social institution, meaning that a good society is one structured according to principals of justice. Rawls asserts that existing theories of justice, developed in the field of philosophy, are not adequate: My guiding aim is to work out A Theory of Justice that is a viable alternative to these doctrines which have long dominated our philosophical tradition. He calls his theory-aimed at formulating a conception of the basic structure of society in accordance with social justice-justice as fairness. Rawls sets forth to determine the essential principles of justice on which a good society may be based. He explains the importance of principles of justice for two key purposes: first, to provide a way of assigning rights and duties in the basic institutions of society; and secondly, to define the appropriate distribution of the benefits and burdens of society. He observes that, by his definition, well-ordered societies are rare due to the fact that what is just and unjust is usually in dispute. He further notes that a well-ordered and perfectly just society must be formulated in a way that addresses the problems of efficiency, coordination, and stability. Critique of Utilitarianism Throughout the twentieth century, the dominant philosophical theory of justice in Western philosophy was utilitarianism. Utilitarianism was first developed in the nineteenth century by the great utilitarians, whom Rawls lists as David Hume, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill. Utilitarianism essentially posits that a just society is one based on achieving the greatest good, or happiness, for the greatest number of people. However, many theorists have found this principle ultimately unsatisfactory because it implies that the  » Complete A Theory of Justice Summary Cited from: A Theory of Justice: Introduction. Nonfiction Classics for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 6 September 2010. . A brief synopsis from Wikipedia: In A Theory of Justice, Rawls argues for a principled reconciliation of liberty and equality. Central to this effort is an account of the circumstances of justice (inspired by David Hume), and a fair choice situation (closer in spirit to Immanuel Kant) for parties facing such circumstances. Principles of justice are sought to guide the conduct of the parties. These parties face moderate scarcity, and they are neither naturally altruistic nor purely egoistic: they have ends which they seek to advance, but desire to advance them through cooperation with others on mutually acceptable terms. Rawls offers a model of a fair choice situation (the original position with its veil of ignorance) within which parties would hypothetically choose mutually acceptable principles of justice. Under such constraints, Rawls believes that parties would find his favored principles of justice to be especially attractive, winning out over varied alternatives, including utilitarian and libertarian accounts. In 1974, Rawls colleague at Harvard, Robert Nozick, published a defense of libertarian justice, Anarchy, State, and Utopia.[3] Because it is, in part, a reaction to A Theory of Justice, the two books are now often read together. Another Harvard colleague, Michael Walzer, wrote a defence of communitarian political philosophy, Spheres of Justice,[4] as a result of a seminar he co-taught with Nozick. In a related line of criticism, Michael Sandel (also a Harvard colleague) wrote Liberalism and the Limits of Justice,[5] which took Rawls to task for asking us to think about justice while divorcing ourselves from the very values and aspirations that define us. Sandels line of argument in part draws on critiques of Rawls advanced by both Charles Taylor and Alasdair MacIntyre who argue for the importance that moral ontologies have on ethical arguments.[6] Robert Paul Wolff wrote Understanding Rawls: A Critique and Reconstruction of A Theory of Justice[7] immediately following the publication of A Theory of Justice, which criticized Rawls from a roughly Marxist perspective. Wolff argues in this work that Rawls theory is an apology for the status quo insofar as it constructs justice from existing practice and forecloses the possibility that there may be problems of injustice embedded in capitalist social relations, private property or the market economy. Feminist critics of Rawls, such as Susan Moller Okin,[8] largely focused on the extent to which Rawls theory could account for (if at all) injustices and hierarchies embedded in familial relations. Rawls argued that justice ought only to apply to the basic structure of society. Feminists, rallying around the theme of the personal is political, took Rawls to task for failing to account for injustices found in patriarchal social relations and the gendered division of labor, especially in the household. The assumptions of the original position, and in particular, the use of maximin reasoning, have also been criticized (most notably by Kenneth Arrow[9] and John Harsanyi),[10] with the implication either that Rawls designed the original position to derive the two principles, or that an original position more faithful to its initial purpose would not lead to his favored principles. In reply Rawls has emphasized the role of the original position as a device of representation for making sense of the idea of a fair choice situation for free and equal citizens.[11] Rawls has also emphasized the relatively modest role that maximin plays in his argument: it is a useful heuristic rule of thumb given the curious features of choice behind the veil of ignorance.[12] Some egalitarian critics have raised concerns over Rawls emphasis on primary social goods. For instance, Amartya Sen has argued that we should attend not only to the distribution of primary goods, but also how effectively people are able to use those goods to pursue their ends.[13] In a related vein, Norman Daniels has wondered why healthcare shouldnt be treated as a primary good,[14] and some of his subsequent work has addressed this question, arguing for a right to health care within a broadly Rawlsian framework.[15] Philosopher Allan Bloom, a student of Leo Strauss, criticized Rawls for failing to account for the existence of natural right in his theory of justice, and wrote that Rawls absolutizes social union as the ultimate goal which would conventionalize everything into artifice.[16] Recent criticisms of Rawls theory have come from the philosopher G.A. Cohen. Cohens series of influential papers culminated first in his book, If Youre An Egalitarian, How Come Youre So Rich?[17] and then in his later work, Rescuing Justice and Equality. Cohens criticisms are leveled against Rawls avowal of inequality under the difference principle, against his application of the principle only to social institutions, and against Rawlsian fetishism with primary goods (again, the metric which Rawls chooses as his currency of equality). Philosopher and Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen, a former student of Rawls, critiques and attempts to revitalize A Theory of Justice in his 2009 book The Idea of Justice. He defends the basic notion of justice as fairness but attacks the notion that the two principles of justice emerging from the Original position are necessary. Sen claims that there are multiple possible outcomes of the reflective equilibrium behind the veil of ignorance. A Theory of Justice (1971), by John Rawls, is one of the most influential works in moral and political philosophy written in the twentieth century, according to Samuel Freeman in the Collected Papers of John Rawls (1999). A Theory of Justice is Rawlss attempt to formulate a philosophy of justice and a theoretical program for establishing political structures designed to preserve social justice and individual liberty. Rawls writes in reaction to the then predominant theory of utilitarianism, which posits that justice is defined by that which provides the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Rawls proposes a theoretical person who, shrouded in a veil of ignorance, must design a just society without foreknowledge of his or her own status in that society. Rawls asserts that from this objective vantage point, which he calls the original position, the individual will choose a system of justice that adequately provides for those positioned on the lowest rungs of society. The individual will do so because he or she may end up in such a disadvantaged position and will want to be adequately provided for. Rawls draws from earlier theories of political philosophy that posit a social contract by which individuals implicitly agree to the terms on which they are governed in any society. Rawls concludes that such a social contract, formulated from the perspective of the original position, will guarantee a just society without sacrificing the happiness or liberty of any one individual. Rawls addresses issues of liberty, social equality, democracy, and the conflict of interests between the individual and society. A Theory of Justice Summary Justice as Fairness In A Theory of Justice, Rawls begins with the statement that, Justice is the first virtue of social institution, meaning that a good society is one structured according to principals of justice. Rawls asserts that existing theories of justice, developed in the field of philosophy, are not adequate: My guiding aim is to work out A Theory of Justice that is a viable alternative to these doctrines which have long dominated our philosophical tradition. He calls his theory-aimed at formulating a conception of the basic structure of society in accordance with social justice-justice as fairness. Rawls sets forth to determine the essential principles of justice on which a good society may be based. He explains the importance of principles of justice for two key purposes: first, to provide a way of assigning rights and duties in the basic institutions of society; and secondly, to define the appropriate distribution of the benefits and burdens of society. He observes that, by his definition, well-ordered societies are rare due to the fact that what is just and unjust is usually in dispute. He further notes that a well-ordered and perfectly just society must be formulated in a way that addresses the problems of efficiency, coordination, and stability. Critique of Utilitarianism Throughout the twentieth century, the dominant philosophical theory of justice in Western philosophy was utilitarianism. Utilitarianism was first developed in the nineteenth century by the great utilitarians, whom Rawls lists as David Hume, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill. Utilitarianism essentially posits that a just society is one based on achieving the greatest good, or happiness, for the greatest number of people. However, many theorists have found this principle ultimately unsatisfactory because it implies that the  » Complete A Theory of Justice Summary I fondly recall arguing about Rawls theories in John Singers Values and Institutions class at Colgate, so it was interesting to finally try reading it.   It turns out, the revolution that Rawls created was based on a simple but totally specious change in the assumptions about human nature, and upon this rotten foundation he built up a shaky edifice to justify Liberal yearnings.   The book is reminiscent of a treatise by a Medieval scientist, working out the elaborate orbital patterns that planets would require if the Universe actually were geocentric. In order to accomplish his revolution, Rawls posited a counterintuitive and antihistorical starting point for the discussion of political theory. The great political philosophers, Hobbes, Locke, etc., had used the state of nature as the starting point for their theories.   In this state of nature, men were assumed to be completely self-centered and dedicated only to their own interests, with the result that life was nasty, brutish and short and only the strongest survived.   But gradually men tired of this blood sport and entered into a social contract wherein they surrendered some personal sovereignty to a central governing entity, which, in whatever form, would enforce a set of impartial laws in order to protect men from one another.   This is a pretty minimalist position, the social contract and the government that it creates serve only to provide a certain level of physical security, leaving men free to pursue their own fortunes and taking no interest in the degree to which they succeed.   But it conforms with our intuitive understanding of human nature, our observations of our fellow man and, most importantly, it has proven a workable basis for understanding politics for some 300 years. The essential change that Rawls made was to replace the State of Nature with his Original Position, wherein, when it came time for primordial man to enter into a social contract, because he would be ignorant of his own capacities (the veil of ignorance), he would pursue a low risk strategy and choose a social contract based on egalitarianism; he would seek the most equal distribution of wealth and power possible, just in case it turned out that he was the least fit of the species. If Rawls is right, if men acted on the assumption that they would be one of the ones left behind once the race of life begins, then the rest of his theory might be worth examining.   But, of course, this assumption runs counter to everything we understand about ourselves and our fellow human beings.   It is a fuzzy headed liberals view of the appropriate strategy for lifes losersmake political decisions on the basis of the likelihood that you are a loser and need help.  Ã‚   But look around a casino or a Lottery Ticket line and you will see that the losers think that they too are winners.   Look at polls about taxation levels and you find that the lower class does not want the upper class taxed too heavily, because they assume that they, or their children, are headed for that bracket eventually.  Ã‚   It turns out that people act very much as the great philosophers expected them to; they act out of naked self interest and the belief that they are capable and deserve whateve r they can achieve.   The justice that men seek is in fact little more than an impartial application of a set of laws that are fair to all, not an equal distribution of goods and power, which would necessarily impinge on the freedom of all. Rawls great error is to try to base his theory on a generalized yearning for happiness.   Rawls was seeking a positive definition of Mans aspiration in the original position, but the inevitable result, because we will all define happiness differently, is to create a foundational quagmire for his theories.   After all, you may define happiness as having a lot of stuff, but I may define it as spiritual enlightenment.  Ã‚   The classic understanding, basing the social contract on the avoidance of death, is obviously universal, we are all agreed that our own deaths are to be avoided, and, therefore, more sound.   . Finding the basic supposition that props up Rawls whole theory to be fundamentally incorrect, it behooves us little to examine the superstructure he seeks to construct upon this error.   Suffice it to say, no system of government has ever achieved a more equal distribution of wealth and power than has the American Constitutional Republic and it is based on the classic understanding of human nature found in Hobbes and Locke.   Nuff said. (Reviewed:) John Rawls is perhaps the most significant intellectual in philosophical ethics to have written in the past hundred years. It is nearly impossible to address ethics in contemporary philosophy without saying something about John Rawls. Central to his theory of justice are the concepts of fairness and equality from behind what he terms a veil of ignorance. Rawlss veil of ignorance is a component of the way people can construct society. He refers to an original position in which a person is attempting to determine a fair arrangement for society without any preconceived notions or prejudices. In this original position, people are behind what Rawls calls a Veil of Ignorance and do not know where they will fall in the social hierarchy in terms of race, class, sex, disability, and other relevant factors. Rawls is a Kantian liberal in that he believes that principles of justice should be universalizable, and so the only way to ensure that people will select fair principles of justice is to be certain that they do not know how the principles they select might affect them as individuals. A person behind the veil of ignorance does not know which side of a social contract he or she will be on, does not know his or her race, class, sex, or status in society. A person who does not know what privileges he or she will be born with (or without ) is, in Rawls view, more likely to construct a society that does not arbitrarily assign privilege based on characteristics that should have no bearing on what people get. Rawls believes that a society cannot be just without fairness and equalit y and believes this veil of ignorance both reveals the biases of In A Theory of Justice, Rawls attempts to make a rational study of social ethics by using reason to determine what a just society should look like and how a rational group of people would organize themselves. One major   topic of interest that Rawls presents is the veil of ignorance concept and its role in the creation of original position. Two further concepts of importance to the theory of a just society are the difference principle and the concept of individual liberty in society. Together, these three concepts provide a basis for the discussion and critique of Rawls theory and its implications for the pursuance of justice. current society and can help to prevent biases in establishing future social arrangements. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls attempts to make a rational study of social ethics by using reason to determine what a just society should look like and how a rational group of people would organize themselves. One major   topic of interest that Rawls presents is the veil of ignorance concept and its role in the creation of original position. Two further concepts of importance to the theory of a just society are the difference principle and the concept of individual liberty in society. Together, these three concepts provide a basis for the discussion and critique of Rawls theory and its implications for the pursuance of justice. Rawls method to justice as a theory proposes that principles of justice can be determined through the rational thinking of individuals shrouded by a veil of ignorance. In a purely hypothetical situation, the veil of ignorance creates an original position of equality in which persons under the veil have no knowledge of status, position in society, personal wealth or natural abilities. From behind the veil of ignorance, a rational, objective and disinterested group of people would choose a system of justice that ensures an equal distribution of rights and duties. The term reflective equilibrium was coined by John Rawls and popularized in his celebrated A Theory of Justice as a method for arriving at the content of the principles of justice. Abstract John Rawls Theory of Justice (1971) is the single most important philosophical work of the Left since Marx. Rawls A Theory of Justice can be understood as two theories addressing two different subjects. The split can also be seen textually. The first half of the book deals almost exclusively with the hypothetical theory of justice founded in the original position. The second half of the book addresses how actual institutions should operate given the findings of the initial theory. There are many instances, such as Rawls distinction between fair and formal equal opportunity, where Rawls claims that the purely speculative arguments of his theory can justify his claims concerning actual situations. However, as Sher argues, it is not necessarily the case that Rawls can make the connection. Rawls hypothetical theory can operate on its own. Rawls theory of just institutions is a stronger argument if he does not try and connect the two theories. The problem of desert is one example of how R awls theory of justice as fairness should be read as two theories. Rawls offers a theory of a just and well-ordered society which would distribute wealth, income, liberties, opportunities and positions of authority. He considers justice as fairness as a political -moral conception of justice. The principles of justice are two according to Ralws and these would justify a given body of social, moral and political ideas since they are congruent to our ferments convictions. Utilitarianism was first developed in the nineteenth century by the great utilitarians. Utilitarianism essentially posits that a just society is one based on achieving the greatest good, or happiness, for the greatest number of people. However, Rawls rejects Utilitarianism, for it fails to take into consideration, the distinction that exists between individuals. Since it aims at the greatest happiness and tries to maximize greatest welfare, it fails to secure individual rights. Rawls relies on the social contract tradition in its Kantian form to account for principles that would guide individuals noumenal selves, secure equal basic liberties to all and account for social values and community. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls begins with the statement that, Justice is the first virtue of social institution, meaning that a good society is one structured according to principals of justice. . Rawls asserts that existing theories of justice, developed in the field of philosophy, are not adequate: My guiding aim is to work out A Theory of Justice that is a viable alternative to these doctrines which have long dominated our philosophical tradition. He calls his theory-aimed at formulating a conception of the basic structure of society in accordance with social justice-justice as fairness. He claims that justice as fairness provides a practical political procedure, which satisfies the demand of modern democracies societies. Pluralism entailed by industrial societies is presumed to be the permanent features of modern democracies, which challenges the priority of philosophy over democracy. However, Rawls theory has received large scale attention by some well-known Academicians. Some of them have disagreed and challenged its basic assumptions. These critical appraisals, but, indicate the importance of his work if one wants to deliberate on problems of contemporary social and political theory. In this thesis will try to excavate the philosophical understanding of the Rawlsian theory of justice and also try to identify the philosophical shift in his position under the light of some of major critiques.

Exploring Morality in Measure for Measure Essay -- Measure for Measure

Exploring Morality in Measure for Measure   Ã‚   In Measure for Measure, Shakespeare is able to examine the concept of right and wrong through the characters of Mistress Overdone and Mariana. Throughout the play, by using characters that most people would find morally reprehensible, Shakespeare is able to give the audience a different view of these people and, hopefully, show his audience that people aren't always what they appear to be. Through the character of Mistress Overdone, Shakespeare is able to bring a jovial side to the oldest job known to man -- prostitution. Through the character of Mariana, Shakespeare allows the audience to decide if two wrongs do, in fact, make a right. While the concepts of right and wrong are given a twist in this play, Shakespeare, in the end, allows his audience to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. At the beginning of act one, scene two, Shakespeare uses the bawd, Mistress Overdone, to convey to the audience that Angelo is enforcing the fornication laws of Vienna. While this seems like the more moral, and more right, action to take, Shakespeare puts a twist on what the audience would normally view as a clear cut case. In lines 79 - 81, Mistress Overdone explains to the audience the effects of these new policies. So, while it seems right to shut these businesses down, the audience now is shown that prostitution is this lady's livelihood and her way for making money. However, who is to decide if the "moral benefits" of eliminating the public display of prostitution is in the best interest of the city? By posing this question, Shakespeare forces the audience to consider both sides of the issue to, in the end, make some decision.    In England, during that time... ... While, of course, this play does not say that Shakespeare was in favor of prostitution, it does force his audience to see these people as individuals and not objects. Likewise, by introducing the description of Mariana, Shakespeare challenges the idea of something always being right or wrong. Through the two characters, Shakespeare is able to have his audience challenge their ideas of right and wrong and force them into justifying these decisions. Sources Cited and Consulted Knight, G. Wilson. Shakespeare and Morality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967. Leech, Clifford. "The 'Meaning' of Measure for Measure." Shakespeare Survey 3 (1950): 69-71. Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. J.W. Lever. London: Routledge, 1995. Thomas, Vivian.   The Moral Universe of Shakespeare's Problem Plays.   London: Croom Helm, 1987.

The Catcher in the Rye :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People go through depressing periods in their lives as teenagers, and some experience it more severely or for longer periods of time than others. In The Catcher in the Rye J.D. Salinger expresses this time of dejection through the protagonist Holden’s thoughts and personal feelings. Holden’s tone reinforces a theme of suicide and depression. He is sarcastic, biter, and occasionally upbeat.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Holden’s skepticism and sarcasm stem from his belief that many people are fake. He believes that many people are insincere in their attitudes, and in what they express publicly, like when Ernie the piano player shows off, â€Å"Anyway, when he was finished, and everybody was clapping their heads off, old Ernie turned around on his stool and gave this very phony, humble bow† (84). Holden knew that Ernie thought highly of himself so he thought it very fake for him to give a seemingly humble bow. Holden seems to act one way and feel another, because he always involves himself with people that make him feel depressed, and then feels bad about it. He cynically evaluates mannerisms of people including their word choice. He comments on a word Sally selected, and says â€Å"Grand. If there’s one word I hate, It’s grand. It’s so phony† (106). Certain words cause Holden to repel people, based on the deceit that he thinks the word ca rries along. Feeling as if he is drowning in a sea of falsehood, Holden constantly find himself feeling depressed because nothing is what it is trying to be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Holden feels as if some sort of purity is threatened he assumes a bitter, angry tone. When Stradlater, someone he knows as very sexually intimate, went on a date with Jane, Holden’s childhood friend, Holden became so angry that he reacted physically: â€Å"I got off from the bed†¦ and then I tried to sock him, with all my might, right smack in the toothbrush, so it would split his goddamn throat open† (43). This shows that Holden feels it his responsibility to preserve all innocence, to prevent people or things from becoming phony. His failure to do so results in uncontrollable bouts of rage. When he reads swear words in the bathroom of his sister’s school, he says â€Å"I kept wanting to kill whoever’d written it† (201). He was thinking about all the children who would see the words, and felt powerless to stop its effects, so he became extremely angry.

The 3 Models of Criminal Justice

Compare the three models of the criminal justice process (the Wedding Cake, the Funnel and the Net Models) The criminal justice process is very complex process and varies from state to state. Three models of the criminal justice process as discussed and reviewed in chapter 9 of out textbook are the funnel, wedding and net. (Meyer, Grant 2003) In this essay I will compare these three models of the criminal justice process and give my opinion on which model I think best describes the criminal justice system as it is today.I will also give you a rationale for the choice that I choose. The first model I will discuss is the funnel model. This model looks at how decisions are made at each level in the criminal justice process and sort out those people and cases that it feels should not go through the entire process from those whom it feels should. This process is used as a means of limiting the number cases to a small percentage of cases that have to be resolved by trial advocacy and incar ceration. The process limits the amount of offenders in court and incarcerated at any given time.The benefit of this model is it prevents the criminal justice system from becoming backed up. The truth is the criminal Justice system is already backed up, and crimes are increasing on a daily basis. A common misconception of the funnel process is that it â€Å"lets criminals off,† however this is not true. Most cases are often dismissed or pleas are bargained due to lack of evidence. The truth is that there is not enough money, to prosecute every crime. It is up to the State (States attorney), or The Attorney general which crimes are worth prosecuting, and which one’s need to be thrown out, or plea bargained.The Next model that I will discuss is the wedding cake model; it is referred to as a wedding cake because with this model criminal justice officials decide how to deal with cases according to their informal discretionary definition of â€Å"seriousness. † This model was developed by Samuel Walker, a scholar who analyzed the judicial system. This model divides the criminal justice system up into four different categories: celebrated cases, serious felonies, lesser felonies and misdemeanors this model looks at the seriousness of the charge, the past criminal record of the offender, as well as the relationship of the victim to the offender. At the very top of the cake, the smallest layer represents famous (or rather, infamous) cases that attract a lot of publicity and, unfortunately, often contribute to public misinformation about the criminal justice. † (Meyer, Grant 2003) Lastly I will discuss the nets model. This model allows some offenders to exit the system and go free at certain stages during the criminal justice process; whereas some criminal struggle unsuccessfully to get free and often end up further entangle in the system.This model is designed to give the police desecration to use some criminals as informants to assist them in catching the ring leader. This model is also used as a plea bargaining tool whereas defendants with little information to trade with the prosecutor may get less attractive plea deals than their accomplices in crime that have more knowledge with which to bargain ((Meyer, Grant 2003). This model has become more familiar to me as I was growing up, in Chicago, IL. I knew several guys who would go out and commit crimes together, and brag about it.They would eventually get caught, and end up telling on each other to get lesser time. They also tell about other crimes, to save their skins. I guess it’s a great model to use to get the big guy, or big fish, but I do not agree to turn a blind eye to crime, whether it’s small or big. In my opinion the model I think best describes today’s criminal justice system is the wedding cake model. Much like this model in today’s criminal justice system is broken down into layers. With the first being celebrated cases or cas e that receive much media attention.Than in today’s system we look serious felonies these are cases where bail maybe revoked. The third layer of the cake in this model is lesser felonies’ often in these cases pleas are taken. The final layer is misdemeanor cases. This model gives us a basic understanding of cases is categorized today. Reference The Wedding Cake Model Theory of Criminal Justice; Copyright  © 1999-2011Demand Media, Inc. ; By. Mike Broemmel; retrieved fromwww. howe. com The Courts in Our CriminalJustice System, by Jon’a F. Meyer and Diana R. Grant.Published by Prentice-Hall. Copyright  © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc Reference the Wedding Cake Model Theory of Criminal Justice; Copyright  © 1999-2011Demand Media, Inc. ; By. Mike Broemmel; retrieved fromwww. howe. comThe Courts in Our Criminal Justice System, by Jon’a F. Meyer and Diana R. Grant. Published by Prentice-Hall. Copyright  © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. The Courts in Ou r Criminal Justice System, by Jon’s F. Meyer and Diana R. Grant. Published by Prentice-Hall. Copyright  © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Kite Runner – Chapter 9

ENGLISH LITERATURE COMMENTARY THE KITE RUNNER The paragraph shows the moment of epiphany as it is the moment where Amir realizes that Hassan know that Amir had hide behind the alley when the incident happened. Amir discovers Hassan’s love for him is endless and accepts his flaws despite after everything that has happened shows in the phrase â€Å"led to another understanding: Hassan knew†. Hassan proves that his love for Amir is so great that he forgives Amir and willing to cover up for Amir once again.Hassan knows that Amir has betrayed him and yet he still takes the blame. â€Å"My heart sank† shows that Amir is shock that Hassan is willing to sacrifice again and take the blow. However it will be â€Å"Hassan’s final sacrifice† as it will be the ultimate sacrifice of Hassan and break the pain they both are undergoing. The situation isn’t the same anymore after the incident happened as their friendship is broken already and with Hassanâ€⠄¢s final sacrifice it puts down the curtain down to what happened in the alley.The connotation of the ‘snake’ shows that it is Amir who is responsible for everything and the sneaky evil. The simile also interjects the fact Amir is not loyal. â€Å"The monster in the lake† refers the dream that Hassan had before the kite competition but in this reference Amir is telling that monster do exist and he compares himself to a monster in which he is cruel and a wicked person who is liable for the whole event. â€Å"I wasn’t worthy of this sacrifice. I was a liar, a cheat, and a thief.And I would have told, except that a part of me was glad† shows that Amir realizes all his drawbacks and that he wasn’t worthy of Hassan’s sacrifice but at the same time he is glad that everything will be over. He is glad that maybe he would be able to move on and continue to his normal life again without having to think about his mischief because so far everythi ng reminds him of the incident. â€Å"I wanted that, to move on, to forget to start with a clean state.I wanted to be able to breathe again† conveys a message that after the incident he is not able to breathe properly because he always recall the bad memories and how he feels so desolate. He believes the only way to start a new clean state is for one of them to leave and with the presence of Hassan it is harder for Amir to erase the guilt and memory from his mind and he wants the memory to stop haunting him like a ghost. He wants to be able to breathe again and with the fact that Hassan is leaving he thinks that the pain would at least be over, his guilt will lessen, he wont be haunted anymore.

Case Study Parrot Head Essay

How can we consider Jimmy Buffet as members of a reference group? A brand community. The definition of a reference group is the people of whose attitudes, behavior, beliefs, opinions, preferences, and values are used by an individual as the basis for his or her judgment. One does not have to be (or even aspire to be) a member of a reference group to be negatively or positively influenced by its characteristics. Jimmy Buffet fans are a part of reference group because they each relate to each other with similar beliefs and behaviors and all have a common bond in following the music of Jimmy Buffet and follow the themes of the fan base similar to dead heads (Grateful Dead). It seem that this reference group aka parrot heads are also part of a nerd group by themselves. Parrot heads is also a humanitarian group and has over 200 different clubs and volunteer groups and charitable events for communities for a charity. This reference group notonly attends Jimmy Buffet concerts but they also are part of huge tailgating party that likes to dress up in tropical outfits and like to drink and pass around blow up dolls filled with alcohol and have fun and escape from their daily nerdy lives. Jimmy Buffet music was big in the late 70’s but his following has become even much bigger today and multi-generational and is not uncommon to see a parent attending this events with one of his adult siblings partaking in the festivities. A brand community is a community or a company to express shared interest in a particular product or â€Å"brand†. In the case of Jimmy Buffet the brand name is Margaritaville from his hit song back in 1977. This brand has gone far beyond selling T shirts and posters but has become a major multi- million dollar business and his branding ranges from a wide range from clothing to casinos and everything in between. I personally am not a parrot head or have been to a one of his concerts but enjoy his music and would probably enjoy going to a concert if the opportunity presented itself. I have a neighbor who is a huge â€Å"Parrot Head† and she has all kinds of Margaritaville brand products from bags games, to Adirondack  chairs to a huge fake palm tree in her backyard and travels to Las Vegas to go to the casino. It is reported Jimmy Buffet has a net worth of over $400 million dollars with his branding and although was a decent musician he has become a marketing giant with his branding. What kind of opportunities does the existence of the Buffett community present to marketers? Develop a list of specific marketing and promotional tactics. The opportunities are endless for the Margar itaville community as long as they are not violating the trademark or bootlegging the products. If you are an entrepreneurial type of person you could work with Margaritaville and develop products that are marketed towards this reference group or could be part of several type of businesses that use this branding or other similar products. Here is a list of promotional tactics one could use to market to this reference group. The Margaritaville line implies quality, value and good times and has a colorful tropical theme and can be put on all different kinds of merchandise that could be sold through several distribution channels. Margaritaville clothing line Restaurant Franchise Hotels Casinos Grocery stores Music stores retailing Jimmy Buffet music Liquor stores Books Clothing lines Parrot Head Hats Sunglasses Club for community charity The Margaritaville brand continues to expand and as new booming markets are created you can see the branding take advantage of those markets that are growing. References Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, Being (10th ed.). (2013). Saddle River, NJ: Michael R. Soloman. Reference Group Definition – Sociology. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://sociology.about.com/od/R_Index/g/Reference-Group.htm What Is a Brand Community? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-brand-community.htm Margaritaville: A Brand Anything But Wasting Away | Beneath the Brand. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.talentzoo.com/beneath-the-brand/blog_news.php?articleID=15368 Parrot Heads in Paradise Inc. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.phip.com/

Scholarly Text Reflection

My scholarly text â€Å"How useful is plantations in learning anatomy' was written by a group of researchers. Some elements that helped me comprehend the text w as the vocabulary because it was anatomy terminology that is in my anatomy and physiology cal as. What also helped me was the texts formation because it was in order from the experiment .NET that was taken place. I was also familiar with the tables and charts in the article as well.Some key ideas from the text that I understood was the type of experiment the at was being made along with why and what it was for. Also knew what plantations was b cause of the surrounding vocabulary that helped me figure out what it meant, it means the hands on work with materials and cadavers. I believe that the plantations works well with lea ring anatomy or any subject with students learning about it. These contribute because it all reel dates back to anatomy and the human body and the subject of the article.One place that confused me or prov okes a question is the tables and charts. T here are some words and numbers on them that don't make sense because don't know w what they refer to. Although understand most of the table and its data, I don't fully get it. A s tragedy could use to address my confusion with is to reread the text that talks about the tables and charts, then go over the tables and charts again. If still can't figure out my confusion I would ask my teacher for help or from an expert.

Portfolio of Chinese contemporary artist Cai Guo-Qiang

Cai Guo-Qiang is a Chinese contemporary artist, curator and internationally recognized as a creator of large scale explosion events. He was born in Quanzhou City, Fujian Province, China in 1957 and lives and works in New York. From 1982-1985 he trained in stage design at Shanghai Drama Institute.His practices on wild life, Chinese medicine, fire works and gun powder. He explored the properties of gunpowder in his drawings when he was in Japan from 1986 to 1995. In 1996 he was selected for finalist for Hugo Boss Prize and in 1999 in 48th Venice Biennale he holds the Golden Lion award and he was awarded the 7th Hiroshima Art Prize in 2007. In 2009, he was awarded the 20th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize[1].The Chinese art was influenced by the New Culture Movements of Western techniques. The aim of new Chinese art is to make contemporary Chinese art accessible to a global audience. For these; it presents several portfolios with 100 contemporary Chinese artists. Some of the selected exhibit ions and projects of China are I Want to Believe, Stage One and Illusion, Explosion Project for the Festival of China, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art and Flying Dragon in the Heavens.Cai Guo-Qiang was first exhibited by the Guggenheim in 1996. I want to believe is the first solo exhibition of an Asian artist organized by Guggenheim Museum of Bilbao in 2009. It is funded by the National Endowment for the Arts and some additional individuals and foundations support. This exhibition charts the artist’s creation of gunpowder drawings, explosion events and social projects and promotes the understanding of Chinese arts and culture worldwide[2].  If there is no action the artistic work of Cai Guo – Qiang is nothing. â€Å"I want to believe† is the creative body work with illustration and visually. It is about the pain and bliss of aggressive explosions–celebratory fire-works versus deadly car bombs.â€Å"I want to believe† significance comes from modern ity, secularism and human kind. â€Å"I want to believe† shows the truth of the era and also increase the awareness. â€Å"I want to believe† is the creation and innovation of the intelligence. â€Å"I want believe† got the concentration of the cross cultures.â€Å"I want to believe† is the artistic art work. It got the interest of the viewers without artist’s intention.   â€Å"I want to believe† is the â€Å"explosion event† by Cai. To show pure energy force Cai used fire works in â€Å"I want to believe†. It is the great art of work with energy.â€Å"I want believe† is know for its explosives. It’s the combination of gunpowder, explosives etc. It shows 80 artistic works from past to present. It is also consists installations and social projects. I want to believe is the magnificent and famous work by Cai[3].â€Å"I want to believe† is the combination cultures and creation. His works are hugely inspired from locations. He explores wide variety art forms .He is best known for his â€Å"fire works†All his works are got inspired from ancient cultures of Chinese. His works mentions Buddhism and martial arts frequently. His works always speaks about the fight between human and nature. His work also mentions about Maoist and Taoist themes. His work is expensive in market of power and product.â€Å"I want to believe† is huge with sight and sound of explosions. It speaks about the artistic work of the art. I want to believe is the work of revolution and aggression[4].Conclusion:Cai Guo – Qiang is an extraordinary artist of twenty first century. He is a transnational artist of extraordinary creative vision and illustration, his structure are inherently unstable, dealing with expenditure of materials and ideas of transformation.Although his work is very expensive to imagine and also to realize his works always speaks about wide variety of aspects such as Capitalism, Sec ularism, Martial arts, Buddhism, Maoist, Taoist, Cross cultures, Transformation etc .His work also shows the combat between the nature and man.Reference:Gersh-Nesic, Beth S. â€Å"Cai Guo-Qiang: I Want to Believe†. Arthistory.about. 2008. Web. 2 June. 2010. Guggenheim. â€Å"Guggenheim Museum Presents Cai Guo-Qiang: I Want To Believe† Guggenheim. 21 May, 2008. Web. 2 June 2010. .Guo-Qiang's, Cai. â€Å"Biography†. Pbs. 2007. 2 June 2010. Smith, Roberta. â€Å"Cars and Gunpowder and Plenty of Noise† The New York Times. 22 February. 2008.[1] Guo-Qiang's, Cai. â€Å"Biography†. Pbs. 2007. 2 June 2010.   [2] Guggenheim. â€Å"Guggenheim Museum Presents Cai Guo-Qiang: I Want To Believe† Guggenheim. 21 May, 2008. Web. 2 June 2010. .[3] Gersh-Nesic, Beth S. â€Å"Cai Guo-Qiang: I Want to Believe†. Arthistory.about. 2008. Web. 2 June. 2010. [4] Smith, Roberta. â€Å"Cars and Gunpowder and Plenty of Noise† The New York Times. 22 Febru ary. 2008.   

Telecommuting, aka Tele-working Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Telecommuting, aka Tele-working - Research Paper Example Telecommuting has significantly altered the traditional offices through the introduction of phones, computers and other telecommunications tools at off-site locations. Golden (2001) stated that the formation of telecommuting has been explored through several terms such as telework, distance work, remote work, flexi work and home based work among others. However, there are no clear definitions that exist regarding the term telecommuting. Several authors have provided varying definitions regarding telecommuting. For instance Olson (1987) denoted telecommuting as an organizational work which is executed outside of the company premises. It is augmented by information technology (IT). Telecommuters are employees who habitually spend about two to four days in a week, performing their tasks at home. Korte & Wynne (1996) recommended that there are three dimensions of telecommuting namely location, implementation of IT and communication network. In the US, telecommuting is referred as telewor king while in Europe telecommuting is denoted as distance working and off-site working. Hamilton (2002) stated telecommuting as a schedule where employees conduct their work at home for a certain percentage of core working time. The place of work can be at home, at a remote office location or some other places which are outside of main office premise. Considering this aspect, it can be stated that telecommuting is an alternative method of work system where employees spend a consistent amount of time at a location other than office, essentially working from home through using computer and telecommunication system. According to Cross (2013), telecommuting means performing work at a location away from workplace and then sending the outcome of the performed work through the electronic medium. The following figure depicts the telecommuting work system: Fig 1: Telecommuting Work System Fig 1: Cross (2013) From the above figure, it can be stated that telecommuting usually supplements diffe rent office based functions. Green, Lopez, Wysocki & Kepner (2003) defined popular terms which cover telecommuting as a remote work, ‘location independent tasks’ and ‘home distributed data processing’ among others. Telecommuting is basically preformed on a terminal which is connected by modem and telephone line to mainframe computer of office. Telecommuting is also performed through personal computer systems where the competed tasks are transmitted over telecommunication media to the organizations’ computer facilities (Green, Lopez, Wysocki & Kepner, 2003). Telecommuting work provisions have a range of procedures depending on the requirements of employees and organizations. For instance, part time telework permits employees to avoid regular travels to the main office, which may or may not be conveniently reachable. Part time telework comprises work of editors or designers who frequently perform as outworkers. On the other hand, full time telework all ows employees to perform as a part of virtual teams who assemble through electronic media from different locations in order to conduct organizational tasks. An example of full time telework comprises medical transcriptionists who perform their tasks at home for an established organization (Green, Lopez, Wysocki & Kepner, 2003). Current telecommuting technologies Successful telecommuting necessitates a number of technologies which permit employees to efficiently communicate with coworkers, supervisors and clienteles. A few of the

Leadership Methods and Skills Research Proposal

Leadership Methods and Skills - Research Proposal Example The appropriate leadership style applied to a specific situation and issue may help in understanding the participative decision-making and the motivations that induce such participation. Functional participation (Yukl, 1981)2 is present; when a leader has the authority to make a decision, the decision is made without stringent time limitation, subordinates have the relevant knowledge to discuss and implement the decision, subordinates' characteristics (values, attitudes, needs) are congruent with the decision to participate, and the leader is skilled in the use of participative techniques. Vroom & Yetton (1973) developed a normative model of leadership decision-making based on Maier's (1963) classification3. The Vroom-Yetton model is one of a number of contingency models designed to provide guidance for managers concerning when and how much subordinate participation should be used. The model focuses attention on the nature of decisions and attempts to designate conditions under which participation will be most successful. The Vroom-Yetton model might appropriately be classified as hierarchical control models that derive their principal assumption from the rational design view of organizations.

Fashion Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Fashion Media - Essay Example The targeted audience for the magazines consists of people having interest in fashion. The main aim of fashion magazines is to sell clothes and display clothing in an artistic way for public interest. Individuals having deep love and high interest for fashion write fashion blogs. The aim of the writers is to share a unique fashion sense with the rest of the population. Blogs appear on the internet and their number is rapidly increasing. Posts on fashion blogs include pictures and daily updates of the latest fashion finds (Miller, M. 2012, 315). The intended audience of blogs includes people who love and enjoy exploring new trends. The writings on the blogs give ordinary individuals a chance to express their opinions and place their mark on the world of fashion. Although the discipline of fashion writing does not have set rules, there are many traits and commonalities found in it. In writing fashion articles, a specific format has to be followed. For instance, the articles are written in first person narration since it is an opinion piece. Writers in fashion industry are supposed to use sophisticated and an informed voice of authority, while considering the expectations of the audience. They should also use short and clear sentences that are easy to read. The writers have a necessity of producing an appealing mental image by use of descriptive language. For instance, instead of describing something as simply â€Å"yellow†, the writer should use a word like â€Å"lemon† or â€Å"sunny† for creating a vivid image. Fashion writing makes use of distinguished lexicon from other writing forms, for instance, the unconventional use of the syntax is typified as modern and... This essay approves that today, fashion writings are found when flipping through art and fashion magazines. However, the art press locates fashion writings within the wider social and cultural dialogues, reflecting upon the cultural, social, economical and psychological implications of dress. The theory of fields, developed by Bourdieu’s, offers an insightful starting point that helps in the understanding of media field paradigm. The theory argues that the society is divided into semiautonomous fields that are structured around the opposition between the economic and political capital and cultural capital. Fields are distinguished both in regards to their degree of autonomy from dominant political forces and specific capital that is valued therein. However, it is complex to locate journalism within the field theory. Fashion writings have a unique power of investigating other fields, including music and politics. The power impacts on the profession’s autonomy through the criticality of the writings it produces. This report makes a conclusion that fashion writing is a wonderful form of expression and can lead to many prospective careers. This type of writing allows individuals in the industry to convey their uniqueness in an artistic manner. Although the purpose of fashion writing is promoting and selling designer clothing and trends, writers have an advantage of working in an advantageous and valuable career. Fashion writers have an opportunity of achieving an excellent lifestyle and becoming a major influence in the industry while pursuing the career. Fashion is undergoing a deep technological and social change. The changes include from fashion magazines to fashion blogs and fashion plates to fashion films.

Geography of water and energy resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Geography of water and energy resources - Essay Example ountries is $34.442 trillion while that of the Middle East OPEC countries is $ 2.1348 trillion, an indicator that the G7 countries are more productive, economically. This identifies mean GDP of $ 4.92 trillion for the G7 countries and $ 0.3558 trillion. This translates to a GDP per capita of $ 43, 132.88 for the G7 countries and $ 14,112.79 for the Middle East OPEC countries (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). The G7 countries therefore have better production efficiency than the Middle East OPEC countries because even though the G7 countries have higher populations, their per capita incomes are far higher than per capita incomes of the Middle East OPEC countries. G7 countries are considered as economic giants in the world and this perception is consistent with the reality, based on the analysis. Gross domestic products of the Middle East OPEC countries are all below a trillion dollars while the lowest GDP among the G7 countries is above a trillion dollars. Higher average GDP and per capita GDP for G7 countries than for Middle East OPEC countries show

Ancient giza Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ancient giza - Research Paper Example The pyramid is believed to have been built as a tomb for one Egyptian Pharaoh whose name was Khufu. This explains the name Pyramid of Khufu. The name is translated as Cheops in Greek language and this also explains why the pyramid is also known as Pyramid of Cheops. Khufu was a pharaoh in the fourth dynasty. How pyramids were built. Pyramids were normally built from quarry stones. One of the major challenges faced by the Egyptians during early pyramid building was the mobility of the huge rocks as well as other raw materials. The illustrations from the Djehutihoep of the twelfth dynasty show an alabaster statue being pulled by around one hundred and seventy two people. It is estimated that the statue was about sixty tons heavy. It further estimated that one rock block required about forty five workers to move a block of about sixteen thousand three hundred kilogram (Penn State University 23). The Symbolism of Pyramids The shape of pyramids in early Egypt are said to have been symboli c. They are believed to have been representing primordial mound. The early Egyptians believed that the earth had been created from the primordial mound. The shape itself was believed to be a representation of the sunrays. For this reason most pyramids were from high polished and reflective white limestone. The purpose of this was to give the pyramid a shiny look like the sun. Some pyramids were given names that give them a sunny description. For instance, the pyramid at Senwosret in El-Lalun was formed named as Senwosret is shining. While it is generally accepted that the pyramids were general burial monuments, there have been continued disagreement about the particular theological foundational principles surrounded them. One of the theories is that they had been designed as a form of "resurrection machine.† The mummies in the pyramids were actually thought to continue with their lives (Lehner 84). The Egyptians had believed that the dark area brought by the night sky which th e stars appeared around was a heaven gate way. There was a sharp pointed end at the top of the pyramid. This has been believed to suggest that the pyramids were actually a way to send the demised pharaohs to the gods through this opening. Most of the Egyptian pyramids were located on or closer to the banks of river Nile. Most of these pyramids were found on the West of river Nile. This was where the sun normally set. This is said to have a symbol of representation of the demise of the pharaoh to be buried in that pyramid. This can be logically attributed that Nile was an important source of raw materials. The alluvial soil from the river banks as well as the proximity to a large quantity of water. Most of the Egyptian is desert and therefore proximity too water for such heavy construction is very important. The ancient Egypt had an elaborate and complex form of civilization. In fact the civilization from ancient Egypt is said to have influenced civilization in other parts of the wor ld. Although Arabic is the currently widely spoken language the Egyptian language was an indigenous language that was spoken during the ancient. They even had laws (Shupak 103). The language can be evidence from the specific kind of writing that existed in the ancient Egypt. The writings are known as the hieroglyphics. These writings were normally preserved on reeds, papyrus reeds. The Egyptian language kept evolving. The Coptic language was a stage of the

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

Research Paper Example The article is informative and updated and could therefore be useful to support or validate arguments to be used in the current study which aims to determine the effect of gender in which children deal with bullying. The research conducted by the authors sought to determine â€Å"to what extent have the correlates and consequences of bullying victimization been misspecified due to an emphasis on direct forms of bullying, such as physical violence, which disproportionately affects boys† (Carbone, et.al, 332). The study was participated by 1,222 youths from 15 schools in the United States and the findings revealed significant similarities and differences in either direct or indirect bullying in terms of gender. Gropper & Froschl (2000) indicated in their findings that â€Å"boys initiated more than three times as many direct forms of teasing and bullying as girls†¦ there was a comparable number of boy and girl recipients, regardless of whether the initiator was male or female† (55). Another interesting finding was that â€Å"both boys and girls were more physical than verbal in their initiation of the incidents, but a difference was observed in the responses of the recipients. Boys were more physical in responding to boys, while girls were more verbal in responding to boys† (Gropper & Froschl, 2000, 55). The official website for James Cook University provided relevant information pertaining to reasons for the bullying behavior. Findings from the research and surveys indicated that bullying could be due to any or a combination of the following reasons: desire for power, lack of skills to communicate, scapegoating, a desire for self-aggrandizement, attempts to increase perceptions of self worth, vindictiveness, distrust of others and overvaluing of control, compliance and hierarchy (JCU, 2010, par. 1). The study indicated that â€Å"people who have been identified as bullies believe that their bullying behaviour causes them to be

You can choose what ever you think Research Paper

You can choose what ever you think - Research Paper Example De Nittis (2008) observes that Oates places special significance on the issue of subordination of women and the feminist perspective of our male-dominated society. She finds that the story displays the theme of violence, especially on females and "male characters are the perpetrators of violence, often physical violence, upon females" (De Nittis 7). Apart from the fact that the story describes issues of violence against women, there is also the integration of fantasy over reality among young girls and how the society responds to it. It can be noted that Connie constantly displays narcissistic acts by always looking at herself at the mirror, fixing her hair time and again, and would act as if she is a matured woman and experienced with men. The repudiation comes directly from her mother who often scolds her for being so immature and contrary to her sister, June. This is where the issue of fantasy versus reality comes into play: because women toil so much in order to be recognized at a certain level by certain male categories, particularly matured men, the society reacts the against it by considering girls as sexual fantasies rather than respectable women. Oates finds a surface realism wherein she deems Arnold friend as a "symbolic Satan" (Christle 1). The roots of Connie, and females in general, being a recipient of sexual violence is because female sexuality has always been perceived based on the masculine parameters (2). For instance, it is as if that being beautiful is all that really matters for Connie - when she sees herself nicely in the mirror, she would think that she would get the kind of recognition she wants from boys. This is always ironic in a sense that the more females define their sexuality in terms of beauty and attractiveness, the more male are going to treat them indecently; and that is the sad

Martha Graham Essay Example for Free

Martha Graham Essay Throughout history, Modern Dance has been pioneered by inspirational choreographers such as Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham. Martha Graham in particular, revolutionised the dance industry with her numerous choreographed works. By experimenting with foreign movements and establishing the fundamental technique in Modern Dance, Martha Graham clearly expressed this dramatic dance style as a new form of life. Her style, created from raw emotion, challenges the technical barriers of traditional ballet and has evolved into today’s contemporary dance form. Born into a privileged life in 1894 near Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, Graham was inspired from her father being a specialised physician interested in the way the human body moves. In 1915, she studied dance with Ted Shawn and Ruth St Denis, the innovative teachers at Denishawn. She then moved to the Greenwhich Village Follies for two years to establish her lengthy career. Living in a time of misconceived ideas, Martha Graham used her dancing genius to represent the many issues in American society in an abstract form. Martha Graham’s technique is classically based but tweaks the usual symmetrical body alignment with sharp, precise and angular shapes. Graham’s moves communicate through the dancer, her emotion and stance on American social issues. These moves are expressed through; contraction, release, spirals, flexed hands and feet, rolls, flexion and suspension, clenched fists, fall and recover, curl and twist. Her stimulus for creating movements was breathing and the way she could emotionally express how she felt about life. The contraction starts from the pelvis and travels up the spine. This curvature in the upper body is developed from an exhalation of breath. The release brings the body back to a neutral position with an inhalation of breath. All of the dancers in her company have an extremely strong core and maintain flexibility even though strength is the dominating component. To train the dancers, Graham would often perform classes with just floor work to strengthen the technical elements (contract, release and spiral) as well as learning control. Here the discipline of dance was drilled before allowing the freedom of performing. Graham was quoted, â€Å"Practice means to perform, over and over again in the face of all obstacles, some act of vision, of faith, of desire. Practice is a means of inviting the perfection desired. † Her experimental technique allowed her dramatic view on life to be performed through Modern Dance. One of Graham’s theatrical works Night Journey, displays her established technical elements of modern dance. Inspired by Sophocles’ Greek Tragedy, the dance begins with King Oedipus and his Queen Jacosta complementing each other in their arms. As the dynamics in the music develop, intruding onto the stage are six chorus members (Daughters of the Night) in a grieving state. Lunging forward in a contraction with their fists covering their eyes, they repeat this sequence around the stage recovering to a release in between each contraction. As the contraction is a Graham interpreted symbol of the human emotion grief, this has been consequently used multiple times throughout. Showing locomotion in unison as they clench their fists and flex their hands demonstrates this pleading state. These movements, contractions, releases, developpes, attitudes and shuffling of feet, depict the women as vulnerable to lustful desires. Graham was quoted, â€Å"The body is your instrument in dance, but your art is outside that creature, the body. † The expression of the upper body is sharp and angular with the reoccurring contraction and release. Non-locomotor movements are often in isolated poses of fear positioned around the males. At the time, women were often discriminated against not having the same power as men. Graham has used this theme to display the social inequality sending a message that men have been in control of women for centuries and that women need to break free. The males use dominating gestures throughout, with the blind-seer Tiresias, portraying power and purpose with the repetition of arabesque promenades and high levels. These foreign movements have expressed the themes in a dramatic way developed from her dance style. In this Greek themed performance, the women wore long black dresses with stripes down the side and crown-like head pieces. King Oedipus wears a simple black tunic revealing most of his body. Tiresias dresses in a black flowing coat, carries a wooden staff, and wears mask to show he is blind. Tiresias uses this wooden staff to indicate his wisdom and this symbolizes truth. The silk rope used to hang Queen Jacosta symbolises the connection to Oedipus from birth til death. The music is an extension to the dancers and enhances this performance dramatically. Wild, fierce and harsh would be a way to describe William Schumann’s dynamic instrumental score. The dancers reacted with the music emotionally as well as physically increasing the overall effect of the performance. This choreographic style has allowed modern dance to communicate life’s emotions through drama intertwining with physical movement and relationships. Martha Graham has created countless choreographic pieces that have revolutionised the traditional outlook on dance. The Martha Graham Company was established in 1926 and is still a leading company to date. She has pioneered the Modern Dance industry by creating the fundamental technique and applying it to her 181 choreographed performances. Martha Graham has created a dance style to express a new form of life which has changed the dance world forever.